In the mid-19th century, the United States began actively expanding its influence across the Pacific Ocean, seeking new economic opportunities and strategic footholds in Asia. One of the most significant early examples of this American expansionism was the Treaty of Kanagawa, signed in 1854 between the United States and Japan. At a time when Japan had been isolated for more than two centuries, the treaty marked a turning point in Japanese history and demonstrated how the United States was increasingly asserting itself on the global stage, using diplomacy backed by military power to open new markets and extend its political reach.
Background of Japanese Isolation
For over 200 years, Japan maintained a policy known as sakoku, or closed country, which strictly limited foreign trade and prohibited almost all foreign contact. This policy, enforced by the Tokugawa shogunate, was intended to preserve Japanese culture and sovereignty. The only significant trade relationship Japan maintained was with the Dutch, who were allowed limited contact through the port of Nagasaki. The isolation helped Japan remain free from Western colonial influence during a time when other Asian nations were falling under foreign control.
America’s Interest in the Pacific
By the mid-1800s, the United States had become increasingly interested in expanding its commercial reach. American merchants and whalers operated in the Pacific, and there was a growing desire to establish ports and markets in Asia. China had already been partially opened through the Treaty of Nanking with Britain, and American leaders sought similar opportunities in the region. Japan, with its rich resources and strategic location, was seen as a key gateway to further expansion into Asia.
Commodore Perry’s Mission
In 1852, President Millard Fillmore dispatched Commodore Matthew C. Perry to Japan with a fleet of warships, known as the ‘Black Ships,’ to demand the opening of Japanese ports to American vessels. Perry arrived in Edo Bay (now Tokyo Bay) in July 1853, delivering a letter from the U.S. president requesting that Japan open trade and provide aid to shipwrecked sailors. The arrival of Perry’s heavily armed ships shocked Japanese officials and demonstrated the growing naval power of the United States.
Gunboat Diplomacy
Perry’s approach exemplified the use of ‘gunboat diplomacy’ the application of military force or threat to achieve diplomatic objectives. Although no shots were fired, the implicit threat of violence was clear. Japan, unprepared to confront modern Western naval power, agreed to consider the American demands. Perry departed but returned in February 1854 with even more ships, increasing the pressure on Japan to agree to terms favorable to the United States.
The Treaty of Kanagawa
On March 31, 1854, Japan and the United States signed the Treaty of Kanagawa. The treaty contained several key provisions:
- Opened the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to American ships for supplies and refueling.
- Promised humane treatment for shipwrecked American sailors.
- Established a U.S. consulate in Japan.
Although the treaty did not establish full commercial trade rights, it was the first formal agreement between Japan and a Western power since the beginning of the isolation era. It opened the door for future negotiations and signaled the beginning of the end of Japan’s closed country policy.
Impact on Japan
The signing of the Treaty of Kanagawa had major consequences for Japan. It led to similar agreements with other Western powers, including Britain, Russia, and France. These treaties, often negotiated under pressure, created a system of ‘unequal treaties’ that favored foreign nations and limited Japanese sovereignty. Internally, the treaty weakened the authority of the Tokugawa shogunate and fueled domestic unrest, eventually contributing to the Meiji Restoration, a period of rapid modernization and reform in Japan.
Example of American Expansionism
The Treaty of Kanagawa serves as a clear example of American expansionism in several ways. First, it reflected the United States’ growing interest in the Pacific and Asia, beyond its continental borders. The treaty was part of a broader trend that included the annexation of California, increased involvement in Hawaii, and the pursuit of influence in China. By forcing open Japanese ports, the United States secured a strategic advantage in the region and demonstrated its willingness to project power far from home.
Commercial and Strategic Motives
The U.S. government and private businesses were driven by both economic and strategic considerations. Opening Japanese ports provided new opportunities for trade, refueling stations for American ships, and access to new markets. In a time of global imperial competition, control over key locations in the Pacific was seen as essential to maintaining influence and power. The Treaty of Kanagawa laid the groundwork for future U.S. involvement in Asia and reflected the desire to compete with European powers who had already established colonies and trade routes across the region.
Precedent for Future Treaties
The success of the Kanagawa agreement encouraged American leaders to pursue similar treaties with other nations. It set a precedent for the use of diplomatic missions backed by military strength. Over time, the United States negotiated increasingly comprehensive treaties with Japan, culminating in full commercial relations. Other nations followed the American example, and Japan soon found itself pressured from multiple sides, leading to a radical transformation of its political and economic systems.
Reflection of Manifest Destiny
The Treaty of Kanagawa can also be viewed within the broader ideology of Manifest Destiny, the belief that the United States was destined to expand its influence across the continent and beyond. While the concept originally applied to westward expansion across North America, by the mid-19th century, it extended across the Pacific. American leaders believed it was their right and duty to spread their institutions, commerce, and values overseas. The treaty represented a step in fulfilling that mission on a global scale.
The Treaty of Kanagawa was more than a diplomatic agreement it was a defining moment in the history of American expansionism. It showcased the United States’ determination to assert itself as a global power, using both negotiation and military presence to achieve its objectives. The treaty opened Japan to the outside world after centuries of isolation and began a complex relationship between the two nations. It highlighted how American foreign policy in the 19th century increasingly focused on extending influence beyond borders, securing trade opportunities, and competing in the rapidly changing world of imperial ambition and technological advancement. As such, the Treaty of Kanagawa remains a powerful example of how expansionist goals shaped American diplomacy and reshaped global relationships.