The annexation of Hawaii by the United States in 1898 was the result of a complex set of political, economic, and strategic factors that unfolded over several decades. From early interactions with American missionaries to the growing influence of U.S. sugar planters, multiple interests converged in a way that led to the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy. Understanding the causes behind Hawaii’s annexation involves a deeper look at the role of colonial ambitions, economic power, and military strategy in shaping history during the late 19th century.
Background of American Interest in Hawaii
Missionary Roots and Cultural Influence
American involvement in Hawaii began in the early 1800s when Protestant missionaries from New England arrived to spread Christianity and Western education. Over time, these missionaries and their descendants became deeply embedded in Hawaiian society. Many of them transitioned into business and political roles, shaping the governance and economy of the islands.
The missionaries’ influence helped build schools, churches, and a new system of governance that mirrored American values. This cultural alignment laid the groundwork for stronger ties with the United States and gradually eroded traditional Hawaiian practices and leadership structures.
The Growth of the Sugar Industry
The development of the sugar industry played a crucial role in driving American interests in Hawaii. As sugar plantations expanded, American businessmen became dominant landowners and employers. These planters relied heavily on access to American markets, and the economic success of sugar exports made the islands strategically and financially valuable to the U.S.
In 1875, the United States and the Kingdom of Hawaii signed the Reciprocity Treaty, allowing Hawaiian sugar to enter the U.S. duty-free. This agreement greatly boosted Hawaii’s economy and increased U.S. economic involvement in the region. However, it also made Hawaii increasingly dependent on the United States.
Political Upheaval and the Fall of the Monarchy
Queen Liliʻuokalani’s Reign
By the time Queen Liliʻuokalani ascended the throne in 1891, tensions were high between native Hawaiians and the growing population of American businessmen and settlers. The queen attempted to restore the power of the monarchy and reassert native control over the government, which had been significantly weakened by the 1887 ‘Bayonet Constitution’ a document that American and European elites forced King Kalākaua to sign, reducing the monarchy’s authority.
Her efforts were met with resistance by the ‘Committee of Safety,’ a group composed mainly of American residents who feared that their business interests were under threat. They plotted to overthrow the queen and sought support from the U.S. government.
The 1893 Overthrow
In January 1893, with the support of U.S. Minister John L. Stevens and a contingent of U.S. Marines from the USS Boston, the Committee of Safety staged a coup and overthrew Queen Liliʻuokalani. Although the queen protested and appealed to the U.S. government, the provisional government, led by Sanford B. Dole, quickly took control of Hawaii’s administration.
The U.S. initially launched an investigation into the legality of the coup, known as the Blount Report, which concluded that the overthrow was illegal and had been aided by unauthorized use of American military force. Despite this, no effort was made to restore the monarchy.
Economic and Strategic Motives for Annexation
The Importance of Pearl Harbor
Beyond economic interests, Hawaii’s geographic position made it strategically valuable to the United States, particularly with the rise of naval power and interest in Pacific expansion. Pearl Harbor, located on the island of Oʻahu, was seen as a key military outpost that could serve as a coaling station and naval base for the U.S. Navy.
In an era of growing imperial competition, especially with European powers and Japan, the U.S. saw the annexation of Hawaii as a necessary step to secure its influence in the Pacific. Control of the islands would provide a strategic advantage for military operations and trade routes across the ocean.
The Economic Fallout of the McKinley Tariff
In 1890, the U.S. passed the McKinley Tariff, which eliminated the tax-free status of Hawaiian sugar exports. This move devastated Hawaii’s sugar-based economy and strengthened the resolve of American planters to seek annexation, which would restore free access to U.S. markets.
Economic hardship, combined with political instability and strategic concerns, created a favorable environment for annexation. Business owners in Hawaii lobbied aggressively for the United States to absorb the islands, believing it was the only way to protect their investments and interests.
The Path to Annexation
Failed Attempts and Growing Support
After the overthrow in 1893, an initial attempt to annex Hawaii under President Benjamin Harrison was withdrawn by his successor, President Grover Cleveland, who opposed the coup. Cleveland’s administration did not recognize the legitimacy of the provisional government and pushed for the restoration of the monarchy, though to no avail.
The political landscape changed under President William McKinley, who was more favorable toward expansionism. With the outbreak of the Spanish-American War in 1898, the strategic importance of Hawaii became undeniable. The U.S. needed a mid-Pacific fueling station and supply point, which tipped the scales in favor of annexation.
The Newlands Resolution
In July 1898, Congress passed the Newlands Resolution, which formally annexed Hawaii as a U.S. territory. The resolution bypassed the need for a treaty and required only a simple majority in both houses of Congress. Hawaii officially became a U.S. territory in 1900 and was later granted statehood in 1959.
Reactions and Legacy
Hawaiian Resistance
Annexation was met with resistance from many native Hawaiians who viewed the process as illegal and unjust. Petitions against annexation gathered tens of thousands of signatures, particularly from the Hawaiian Patriotic League. Despite these efforts, their voices were largely ignored by U.S. officials and the provisional government.
Queen Liliʻuokalani herself protested the annexation until her death, maintaining that her nation had been taken against the will of its people. The overthrow and subsequent annexation are still topics of political and cultural discussion in modern Hawaii.
Long-Term Consequences
The annexation of Hawaii contributed to the broader pattern of American imperialism at the turn of the 20th century. It enabled the United States to expand its economic and military reach across the Pacific, playing a key role in shaping the nation’s global presence in the coming decades.
However, it also marked the beginning of a long struggle by Native Hawaiians to reclaim cultural identity, land rights, and political recognition. The events surrounding annexation remain a source of pain and pride, resistance and resilience, in Hawaiian history.
The cause of the annexation of Hawaii was a convergence of cultural influence, economic necessity, military strategy, and political ambition. American missionaries laid the cultural groundwork, sugar planters fueled the economic dependency, and military planners secured the strategic justification. While the United States gained a valuable territory, the annexation came at the cost of Hawaiian sovereignty and self-determination a legacy that continues to influence the islands to this day.